Romans Chapter 1

Paul begins his letter with a formal introduction identifying himself with three descriptors. The term δοῦλος (doulos) means "slave" or "servant" and communicates Paul's complete devotion to Christ. The word κλητὸς (klētos, "called") emphasizes that his apostleship came by divine appointment, not self-designation. ἀφωρισμένος (aphōrismenos) is a perfect passive participle meaning "having been set apart," suggesting God's action in separating Paul for a specific purpose. The word εὐαγγέλιον (euangelion, "gospel") literally means "good news" and becomes a central theme throughout the letter.

This verse establishes the continuity between the Old Testament and the gospel. The relative pronoun ὃ (ho, "which") connects the gospel with God's prior promises. The compound verb προεπηγγείλατο (proepēngeilato, "he promised beforehand") emphasizes the pre-announcement of the gospel in earlier times. The phrase ἐν γραφαῖς ἁγίαις (en graphais hagiais, "in holy Scriptures") refers to the Jewish Scriptures, with γραφαῖς (graphais, "writings") being a technical term for authoritative religious texts.

This verse begins Paul's Christological statement, defining the content of the gospel. The phrase τοῦ γενομένου (tou genomenou, "the one having been born") is an aorist participle indicating a historical event. The expression ἐκ σπέρματος Δαυὶδ (ek spermatos Dauid, "from the seed of David") connects Jesus to messianic prophecies, with σπέρματος (spermatos, "seed") being a term commonly used for royal lineage. The phrase κατὰ σάρκα (kata sarka, "according to the flesh") qualifies that this is specifically about Jesus' human nature, contrasting with what follows in verse 4.

This verse contrasts with verse 3 by moving from Jesus' human nature to his divine nature. The verb ὁρισθέντος (horisthentos, "having been declared/appointed") is an aorist passive participle indicating God's action in declaring Jesus' divine sonship. The phrase ἐν δυνάμει (en dunamei, "in power") emphasizes the authoritative nature of this declaration. The rare expression πνεῦμα ἁγιωσύνης (pneuma hagiōsunēs, "Spirit of holiness") is a Semitic construction likely referring to the Holy Spirit. The phrase ἐξ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν (ex anastaseōs nekrōn, "from resurrection of dead ones") identifies the resurrection as the defining moment demonstrating Jesus' divine sonship.

This verse explains Paul's apostolic mission. The relative pronoun οὗ (hou, "whom") connects Paul's ministry directly to Christ. The pairing of χάριν καὶ ἀποστολὴν (charin kai apostolēn, "grace and apostleship") may be a hendiadys (expressing a single complex concept through two words) suggesting "grace of apostleship." The phrase ὑπακοὴν πίστεως (hupakoēn pisteōs, "obedience of faith") can be interpreted either as "obedience that comes from faith" or "the obedience which is faith," establishing a key theme of the letter. The term ἔθνεσιν (ethnesin, "nations") typically refers to non-Jewish peoples but here likely includes all nations.

This verse applies Paul's mission to the Romans specifically. The relative pronoun οἷς (hois, "whom") refers back to "all the nations" in verse 5. The emphatic pronoun ὑμεῖς (humeis, "you") highlights the Romans' inclusion in God's plan. The adjective κλητοὶ (klētoi, "called") echoes Paul's self-description in verse 1, emphasizing that the Romans, like Paul, have been divinely summoned. The genitive construction Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (Iēsou Christou, "of Jesus Christ") likely indicates possession, suggesting that the Romans belong to Christ.

This verse completes Paul's greeting. The participle οὖσιν (ousin, "being") specifies the geographical location of the recipients. The terms ἀγαπητοῖς θεοῦ (agapētois theou, "beloved of God") and κλητοῖς ἁγίοις (klētois hagiois, "called holy ones/saints") describe the Romans' status in God's eyes, with ἁγίοις (hagiois) indicating their set-apart status. The greeting χάρις καὶ εἰρήνη (charis kai eirēnē, "grace and peace") combines Greek (charis) and Hebrew (shalom/eirēnē) greeting conventions, making it suitable for a mixed audience. The source of blessing ἀπὸ θεοῦ πατρὸς ἡμῶν καὶ κυρίου Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ places Jesus on the same level as God, implying Jesus' divinity.

This verse begins the thanksgiving section typical in Paul's letters. The adverb Πρῶτον (Prōton, "First") introduces the first of what might be several points, though Paul doesn't use "second" later. The verb εὐχαριστῶ (eucharistō, "I give thanks") is in the present tense, indicating ongoing gratitude. The phrase διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (dia Iēsou Christou, "through Jesus Christ") reflects Paul's understanding of Christ as mediator. The conjunction ὅτι (hoti, "because") introduces the reason for thanksgiving. The verb καταγγέλλεται (katangelletai, "is proclaimed") is in the passive voice, suggesting that the Romans' faith was becoming known without their direct effort. The hyperbolic expression ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κόσμῳ (en holō tō kosmō, "in the whole world") emphasizes the widespread recognition of their faith.

This verse begins an oath formula to emphasize Paul's sincere concern for the Romans. The conjunction γὰρ (gar, "for") introduces the supporting evidence for his thanksgiving. The term μάρτυς (martus, "witness") invokes God as the one who can verify Paul's claims. The verb λατρεύω (latreuō, "I serve") carries religious connotations, typically describing service to God. The phrase ἐν τῷ πνεύματί μου (en tō pneumati mou, "in my spirit") emphasizes the internal, sincere nature of Paul's service. The adverb ἀδιαλείπτως (adialeiptōs, "unceasingly") is hyperbolic, emphasizing the frequency and consistency of Paul's prayers for the Romans.

This verse continues Paul's prayer topic from verse 9. The adverb πάντοτε (pantote, "always") reinforces the idea of constant prayer. The participle δεόμενος (deomenos, "praying/asking") indicates the specific content of his prayers. The combination εἴ πως (ei pōs, "if somehow") introduces an element of contingency, showing Paul's uncertainty about the outcome. The future passive verb εὐοδωθήσομαι (euodōthēsomai, "I will be prospered") literally means "to have a good journey" and suggests divine enablement. The phrase ἐν τῷ θελήματι τοῦ θεοῦ (en tō thelēmati tou theou, "in the will of God") subordinates Paul's desires to God's purposes. The infinitive ἐλθεῖν (elthein, "to come") expresses the purpose of the prospering.

This verse explains Paul's purpose for wanting to visit Rome. The verb ἐπιποθῶ (epipothō, "I long") expresses strong desire and emotional attachment. The conjunction ἵνα (hina, "that") introduces a purpose clause. The verb μεταδῶ (metadō, "I may impart/share") is an aorist subjunctive suggesting a decisive action of sharing. The expression χάρισμα πνευματικὸν (charisma pneumatikon, "spiritual gift") likely refers to some spiritual blessing or benefit, not necessarily a specific spiritual gift as discussed in 1 Corinthians 12. The articular infinitive εἰς τὸ στηριχθῆναι (eis to stērichthenai, "for the strengthening") expresses the purpose of the gift-sharing.

This verse clarifies Paul's previous statement, showing his expectation of mutual benefit. The phrase τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν (touto de estin, "that is") introduces an explanatory clarification. The infinitive συμπαρακληθῆναι (sumparaklēthēnai, "to be encouraged together") is a compound verb with the prefix συμ- (sum-, "together") emphasizing mutuality. The complex construction διὰ τῆς ἐν ἀλλήλοις πίστεως (dia tēs en allēlois pisteōs, "through the in-one-another faith") underscores the reciprocal nature of Christian encouragement. The pronoun ἀλλήλοις (allēlois, "one another") reinforces the mutual interaction. The phrase ὑμῶν τε καὶ ἐμοῦ (humōn te kai emou, "both yours and mine") explicitly balances the relationship, avoiding any impression of one-sided benefit.

This verse reveals Paul's past attempts to visit Rome. The expression οὐ θέλω ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν (ou thelō humas agnoein, "I do not want you to be ignorant") is a formula Paul uses to introduce important information. The vocative ἀδελφοί (adelphoi, "brothers") emphasizes familial relationship within the faith community. The adverb πολλάκις (pollakis, "often") stresses the repeated nature of Paul's intentions. The verb προεθέμην (proethemēn, "I planned/purposed") is aorist middle, suggesting personal resolution. The passive ἐκωλύθην (ekōluthēn, "I was hindered") implies external obstacles without specifying their source. The phrase ἵνα τινὰ καρπὸν σχῶ (hina tina karpon schō, "that I might have some fruit") uses agricultural imagery to describe spiritual results. The comparative construction καθὼς καὶ ἐν τοῖς λοιποῖς ἔθνεσιν (kathōs kai en tois loipois ethnesin, "just as also among the rest of the Gentiles") places Rome in the context of Paul's broader Gentile mission.

This verse expresses Paul's sense of universal obligation in his apostolic mission. The dative nouns Ἕλλησίν (Hellēsin, "to Greeks") and βαρβάροις (barbarois, "to barbarians") represent a cultural division of humanity from a Greek perspective. Similarly, σοφοῖς (sophois, "to wise") and ἀνοήτοις (anoētois, "to foolish") represent an intellectual division. The correlative construction τε καὶ... τε καὶ (te kai... te kai, "both... and... both... and") emphasizes the comprehensive scope of Paul's obligation. The predicate nominative ὀφειλέτης (opheiletēs, "debtor") positions Paul as one under obligation, perhaps viewing the gospel as a trust for which he is answerable. The present indicative εἰμί (eimi, "I am") emphasizes the continuing nature of this obligation.

This verse concludes Paul's explanation of his desire to visit Rome. The adverb οὕτως (houtōs, "so") connects this statement with his sense of obligation expressed in verse 14. The substantival adjective τὸ κατ' ἐμὲ πρόθυμον (to kat' eme prothumon, "the according-to-me eagerness" or "my eagerness") is an unusual construction emphasizing Paul's personal enthusiasm. The infinitive εὐαγγελίσασθαι (euangelisasthai, "to evangelize/preach the gospel") expresses the content of Paul's eagerness. The phrase ὑμῖν τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ (humin tois en Rhōmē, "to you who are in Rome") specifies the recipients of Paul's intended gospel preaching, tying back to the letter's addressees mentioned in verse 7.

This verse introduces a key theme of Romans with a powerful statement about the gospel. The negative οὐ (ou, "not") with ἐπαισχύνομαι (epaischunomai, "I am ashamed") creates a litotes (understatement through double negative), actually emphasizing Paul's confidence in the gospel. The term δύναμις (dunamis, "power") refers to inherent ability or strength and is the root of our word "dynamite." The preposition εἰς (eis, "to/for") indicates purpose or result. The present participle τῷ πιστεύοντι (tō pisteuonti, "the one believing") suggests ongoing faith rather than a one-time act. The phrase Ἰουδαίῳ πρῶτόν τε καὶ Ἕλληνι (Ioudaiō prōton te kai Hellēni, "to Jew first and also to Greek") establishes a salvation-historical priority while affirming universal accessibility.

This verse introduces another key theme of the letter: righteousness by faith. The term δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ (dikaiosunē theou, "righteousness of God") could be interpreted as God's own righteous character, a righteous status given by God, or both. The present passive verb ἀποκαλύπτεται (apokaluptetai, "is revealed") indicates an ongoing divine disclosure. The phrase ἐκ πίστεως εἰς πίστιν (ek pisteōs eis pistin, "from faith to faith") is ambiguous but likely emphasizes the faith principle as both the starting point and continuing basis of Christian life. The perfect passive γέγραπται (gegraptai, "it is written") introduces a quotation from Habakkuk 2:4, giving scriptural authority to Paul's teaching. The future verb ζήσεται (zēsetai, "will live") in the quotation refers to both spiritual life now and eschatological life in the future.

This verse begins Paul's explanation of universal human sinfulness. The verb Ἀποκαλύπτεται (Apokaluptetai, "is revealed") parallels the same verb in verse 17, creating a stark contrast between God's righteousness and wrath. The term ὀργὴ (orgē, "wrath") refers to God's righteous anger against sin, not capricious emotion. The phrase ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ (ap' ouranou, "from heaven") emphasizes the divine origin of this judgment. The paired terms ἀσέβειαν καὶ ἀδικίαν (asebeian kai adikian, "ungodliness and unrighteousness") distinguish between sins against God and sins against others. The participle κατεχόντων (katechontōn, "suppressing") implies an active, willful holding down of truth, not mere ignorance.

This verse explains why humans are accountable for suppressing the truth. The conjunction διότι (dioti, "because") introduces the rationale for human culpability. The substantival adjective τὸ γνωστὸν (to gnōston, "that which is known") refers to knowable aspects of God's nature. The adjective φανερόν (phaneron, "manifest/plain") emphasizes clear visibility. The prepositional phrase ἐν αὐτοῖς (en autois, "among/in them") could mean either that this knowledge is internalized or simply among humans collectively. The aorist active ἐφανέρωσεν (ephanerōsen, "manifested/showed") indicates God's deliberate action in making himself known.

This verse elaborates on how God has revealed himself through creation. The substantival adjective ἀόρατα (aorata, "invisible things") paradoxically refers to attributes that are not directly visible but are perceptible. The temporal marker ἀπὸ κτίσεως κόσμου (apo ktiseōs kosmou, "from creation of world") indicates the starting point of this revelation. The dative phrase τοῖς ποιήμασιν (tois poiēmasin, "by the things made") indicates the means by which invisible attributes are perceived. The present passive participle νοούμενα (nooumena, "being understood") emphasizes intellectual perception. The paired attributes ἀΐδιος δύναμις καὶ θειότης (aidios dunamis kai theiotēs, "eternal power and divine nature") specify what can be known about God through creation. The adjective ἀναπολογήτους (anapologētous, "without excuse") is a legal term denoting absence of a valid defense.

This verse describes humanity's failure to respond appropriately to natural revelation. The participle γνόντες (gnontes, "having known") is an aorist active form indicating that humans did attain some knowledge of God. The negative statement οὐχ ὡς θεὸν ἐδόξασαν ἢ ηὐχαρίστησαν (ouch hōs theon edoxasan ē ēucharistēsan, "not as God they glorified or gave thanks") describes the improper response to this knowledge. The contrastive conjunction ἀλλ' (all', "but") introduces the consequences of this failure. The passive verb ἐματαιώθησαν (emataiōthēsan, "they became vain/futile") suggests a process of deterioration in human thinking. The passive ἐσκοτίσθη (eskotisthē, "was darkened") uses darkness as a metaphor for intellectual and moral confusion. The adjective ἀσύνετος (asunetos, "foolish/without understanding") describes the heart that fails to grasp moral and spiritual truth.

This brief verse contains a powerful irony. The present participle φάσκοντες (phaskontes, "claiming/asserting") suggests ongoing self-proclamation of wisdom. The infinitive εἶναι σοφοὶ (einai sophoi, "to be wise") represents the content of their claim. The aorist passive ἐμωράνθησαν (emōranthēsan, "they became fools") creates a sharp contrast with their self-assessment. The passive voice may suggest divine judgment, with God allowing their foolishness to be manifested fully. The root word μωρός (mōros, "fool") is the source of our English word "moron" and represents not just intellectual deficiency but moral obtuseness.

This verse describes the ultimate expression of human folly: idolatry. The aorist active ἤλλαξαν (ēllaxan, "they exchanged") suggests a decisive act of substitution. The contrast between ἀφθάρτου (aphthartou, "incorruptible/immortal") and φθαρτοῦ (phthartou, "corruptible/mortal") highlights the absurdity of the exchange. The preposition ἐν (en, "in/for") with the dative introduces what is received in the exchange. The terms ὁμοιώματι εἰκόνος (homoiōmati eikonos, "likeness of an image") create a double distancing from reality, emphasizing the derivative and inadequate nature of idols. The four categories—ἀνθρώπου καὶ πετεινῶν καὶ τετραπόδων καὶ ἑρπετῶν (anthrōpou kai peteinōn kai tetrapodōn kai herpetōn, "man and birds and four-footed animals and reptiles")—represent a comprehensive taxonomy of living creatures, echoing Genesis 1:20-26 and suggesting a complete reversal of the created order.

This verse begins the description of God's judgment on human sin. The inferential conjunction Διὸ (Dio, "Therefore") connects this divine response to the previous human rebellion. The aorist active παρέδωκεν (paredōken, "handed over/gave up") is the first of three such verbs (see vv. 26, 28) marking stages in God's judgment. The prepositional phrase ἐν ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις (en tais epithumiais, "in the desires") suggests either the sphere of abandonment or the means by which it occurs. The purpose clause εἰς ἀκαθαρσίαν (eis akatharsian, "to impurity") indicates the result of being given over. The genitive infinitive τοῦ ἀτιμάζεσθαι (tou atimazesthai, "to dishonor") introduces a secondary purpose of degradation. The reflexive pronoun ἐν αὐτοῖς (en autois, "among themselves") emphasizes that humans are both agents and victims of their own degradation.

This verse provides further explanation of humanity's rebellion against God. The relative pronoun οἵτινες (hoitines, "who") introduces a causal clause. The compound verb μετήλλαξαν (metēllaxan, "exchanged") is stronger than the simple form used in verse 23, perhaps suggesting a more complete exchange. The phrase τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ θεοῦ (tēn alētheian tou theou, "the truth of God") contrasts with τῷ ψεύδει (tō pseudei, "the lie"), likely referring to idolatry as the fundamental falsehood. The paired verbs ἐσεβάσθησαν καὶ ἐλάτρευσαν (esebasthēsan kai elatreusan, "worshiped and served") refer to religious reverence and ritual service respectively. The preposition παρὰ (para, "rather than") with the accusative expresses preference of one over another. The doxology ὅς ἐστιν εὐλογητὸς εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας (hos estin eulogētos eis tous aiōnas, "who is blessed forever") serves both to affirm God's character despite human rebellion and to distance Paul from the idolatry he describes.

This verse begins the second stage of divine judgment. The prepositional phrase Διὰ τοῦτο (Dia touto, "Because of this") connects this judgment with the previous idolatry. The verb παρέδωκεν (paredōken, "handed over/gave up") repeats from verse 24, creating a structural pattern. The expression πάθη ἀτιμίας (pathē atimias, "passions of dishonor") is a Semitic genitive construction meaning "dishonorable passions." The explanatory γὰρ (gar, "for") introduces specific examples. The term θήλειαι (thēleiai, "females") is a biological rather than social designation, emphasizing the physical nature of the aberration. The verb μετήλλαξαν (metēllaxan, "exchanged") recalls the exchange in verse 25, suggesting that sexual deviation parallels religious deviation. The contrast between φυσικὴν χρῆσιν (phusikēn chrēsin, "natural use/relations") and παρὰ φύσιν (para phusin, "contrary to nature") reflects Stoic natural law concepts while being grounded in Jewish creation theology.

This verse continues the description of sexual deviation. The adverb ὁμοίως (homoiōs, "likewise") establishes parallelism with the previous example. The aorist participle ἀφέντες (aphentes, "having left/abandoned") suggests a deliberate departure from natural sexuality. The aorist passive ἐξεκαύθησαν (exekauthēsan, "were inflamed/burned") describes intense passion using fire imagery. The preposition ἐν (en, "in") with the dative τῇ ὀρέξει (tē orexei, "the desire") indicates the sphere of this inflammation. The present participle κατεργαζόμενοι (katergazomenoi, "working out/performing") implies ongoing activity. The term ἀσχημοσύνην (aschēmosunēn, "shamelessness/indecency") denotes behavior that violates propriety. The noun ἀντιμισθίαν (antimisthian, "recompense/retribution") suggests appropriate consequence, with the relative clause ἣν ἔδει (hēn edei, "which was necessary") emphasizing its inevitability. The present participle ἀπολαμβάνοντες (apolambanontes, "receiving") indicates that the penalty is not merely future but already experienced.

This verse introduces the third and climactic stage of divine judgment. The conjunction καθὼς (kathōs, "just as") introduces a correspondence between sin and judgment. The verb ἐδοκίμασαν (edokimasan, "they approved/deemed fit") with negative οὐκ (ouk, "not") indicates a deliberate rejection. The infinitive ἔχειν τὸν θεὸν ἐν ἐπιγνώσει (echein ton theon en epignōsei, "to have God in knowledge") refers to retention of God in consciousness. The verb παρέδωκεν (paredōken, "handed over") appears for the third time, completing the pattern. The adjective ἀδόκιμον (adokimon, "worthless/unapproved") creates wordplay with ἐδοκίμασαν (edokimasan, "they approved")—as they did not approve to keep God in knowledge, God gave them to an unapproved mind. The infinitive ποιεῖν (poiein, "to do") indicates the purpose of this mental degradation. The substantival participle τὰ μὴ καθήκοντα (ta mē kathēkonta, "the things not fitting") is a Stoic term for actions contrary to nature and reason.

This verse begins a vice list, a common rhetorical device in Hellenistic moral discourse. The perfect passive participle πεπληρωμένους (peplērōmenous, "having been filled") suggests complete saturation with evil. The adjective πάσῃ (pasē, "all/every kind of") emphasizes the comprehensive nature of their unrighteousness. The nouns ἀδικίᾳ, πονηρίᾳ, πλεονεξίᾳ, κακίᾳ (adikia, ponēria, pleonexia, kakia, "unrighteousness, wickedness, greed, malice") form an initial group of general vices. The adjective μεστοὺς (mestous, "full of") introduces a second group of more specific vices, some of which exhibit alliteration in Greek: φθόνου, φόνου, ἔριδος (phthonou, phonou, eridos, "envy, murder, strife"). The term ψιθυριστάς (psithuristas, "whisperers") refers to secret slanderers who damage reputations behind people's backs.

This verse continues the vice list from verse 29. The term καταλάλους (katalalous, "slanderers") refers to open detractors, contrasting with the secret slanderers in verse 29. The rare adjective θεοστυγεῖς (theostugeis, "God-haters") could be passive ("hated by God") or active ("hating God"), with the latter more likely given the context of human rebellion. The terms ὑβριστάς, ὑπερηφάνους, ἀλαζόνας (hubristas, huperēphanous, alazonas, "insolent, arrogant, boastful") form a triad of related vices involving inflated self-importance. The phrase ἐφευρετὰς κακῶν (epheuretas kakōn, "inventors of evil") suggests creative depravity, developing new forms of wickedness. The expression γονεῦσιν ἀπειθεῖς (goneusin apeitheis, "disobedient to parents") reflects violation of the fifth commandment, a fundamental social duty in ancient cultures.

This verse completes the vice list with four terms all beginning with the negative prefix ἀ- (a-, "not/without"), creating a powerful rhetorical effect. The adjective ἀσυνέτους (asunetous, "foolish/without understanding") echoes the "foolish heart" in verse 21, creating thematic unity. The term ἀσυνθέτους (asunthetous, "unfaithful/covenant-breakers") refers to those who do not keep agreements. The adjective ἀστόργους (astorgous, "without natural affection") indicates absence of basic family love and loyalty. The final term ἀνελεήμονας (aneleēmonas, "unmerciful") suggests a complete lack of compassion, the climax of moral degradation.

This verse concludes Paul's indictment of Gentile sinfulness with a powerful statement about moral culpability. The relative pronoun οἵτινες (hoitines, "who") introduces a characteristic quality. The aorist participle ἐπιγνόντες (epignontes, "having known") implies clear recognition. The term δικαίωμα (dikaiōma, "righteous decree/requirement") refers to God's moral standard. The substantival participle οἱ πράσσοντες (hoi prassontes, "those practicing") suggests habitual behavior. The construction οὐ μόνον... ἀλλὰ καὶ (ou monon... alla kai, "not only... but also") introduces the climactic point. The verb συνευδοκοῦσιν (suneudokousin, "give approval") combines the prefix συν- (sun-, "with") with εὐδοκοῦσιν (eudokousin, "approve"), suggesting active endorsement. This represents the deepest level of moral corruption: not merely committing sin but approving it in others, effectively establishing an alternative morality in defiance of God's standard.