People in Romans

Paul (formerly Saul of Tarsus) was a Jewish Pharisee who became the primary apostle to the Gentiles after his dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus. Born a Roman citizen in Tarsus (modern Turkey), he received extensive education under the renowned rabbi Gamaliel.

Known as the author of at least 13 New Testament epistles, Paul wrote Romans around 57 AD while in Corinth, planning his journey to Spain via Rome. In this letter, he presents his most comprehensive explanation of the gospel and God's righteousness revealed through faith.

Paul identifies himself as "a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God" (Romans 1:1), emphasizing his divine commissioning. His dual background as both a Jew and Roman citizen equipped him uniquely to bridge Jewish and Gentile worlds, making him instrumental in establishing Christianity as a universal faith.

Jesus Christ is the central figure of Christianity and the primary subject of Paul's theology in Romans. The letter emphasizes Christ's dual nature: "descended from David according to the flesh" and "declared to be the Son of God with power according to the Spirit of holiness by resurrection from the dead" (Romans 1:3-4).

Throughout Romans, Paul develops several key christological themes: Christ as the fulfillment of God's promises, the perfect sacrifice for sin, the last Adam who reverses the consequences of the first Adam's fall, and the Lord to whom believers pledge allegiance.

Jesus' death and resurrection form the foundation of Paul's gospel, enabling justification by faith, reconciliation with God, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. Christ's obedience, contrasted with Adam's disobedience, establishes the theological framework for understanding salvation history and God's redemptive plan.

Abraham is a pivotal figure in Romans, serving as Paul's primary example of justification by faith apart from works. Originally named Abram ("exalted father"), God changed his name to Abraham ("father of many nations") as a testament to the covenant promise of numerous descendants.

In Romans 4, Paul examines Abraham's life to demonstrate that righteousness comes through faith, not through works or circumcision. He highlights that Abraham was declared righteous before his circumcision (Genesis 15:6), making him the spiritual father of all believers, both circumcised and uncircumcised.

Paul emphasizes Abraham's unwavering faith in God's promise of a son despite his and Sarah's advanced age. This faith, which believed that God "gives life to the dead and calls those things which do not exist as though they did" (Romans 4:17), serves as the pattern for Christian faith in Christ's resurrection.

David was Israel's second and greatest king, renowned as a man after God's own heart and recipient of the covenant promise that his throne would be established forever (2 Samuel 7:12-16). In Romans, David serves two important theological purposes.

First, Paul emphasizes Jesus' Davidic lineage (Romans 1:3), confirming him as the promised Messiah from David's line. This connects Jesus to the covenant promises and messianic expectations of the Old Testament.

Second, Paul quotes David's words in Psalm 32:1-2 as confirmation that justification by faith apart from works was not a new concept (Romans 4:6-8). David's experience of forgiveness and imputed righteousness serves as another Old Testament example of the doctrine central to Paul's gospel.

Adam, the first human created by God according to Genesis, plays a crucial typological role in Paul's theology in Romans. Though mentioned by name only once (Romans 5:14), Adam's actions form the foundational problem that Christ's work resolves.

In Romans 5:12-21, Paul develops a contrasting parallel between Adam and Christ, presenting them as representative heads whose actions affect all associated with them. Through Adam's disobedience, sin and death entered the world and spread to all humanity. In contrast, through Christ's obedience, righteousness and life became available to all who believe.

This Adam-Christ typology is central to understanding Paul's concept of sin as both individual actions and a cosmic power, as well as his view of salvation as more than forgiveness but also restoration to God's original intentions for humanity.

Moses was the great prophet who led Israel out of Egyptian slavery, received the Law at Mount Sinai, and guided the people through the wilderness for 40 years. Although Moses is mentioned by name only a few times in Romans, his significance is felt throughout the letter because of his association with the Law.

In Romans, Paul frequently discusses the role and limitations of the Law given through Moses. While affirming that the Law is "holy, righteous, and good" (Romans 7:12), Paul argues that it was never intended as a means of salvation but rather to reveal sin (Romans 3:20) and ultimately lead people to Christ (cf. Galatians 3:24).

Paul also quotes Moses extensively, particularly from Deuteronomy, to support his arguments about God's sovereignty in election (Romans 9:15), righteousness by faith (Romans 10:5-8), and God's plan to provoke Israel to jealousy through the Gentiles (Romans 10:19).

Phoebe is the first person mentioned in Romans 16 and likely the carrier of Paul's letter to the Roman church. Paul identifies her as "a servant (diakonon) of the church in Cenchreae," using the term that elsewhere refers to the office of deacon, suggesting she held a recognized leadership position.

Paul commends Phoebe highly, calling her a prostatis (patron/benefactor/helper) of many, including Paul himself. This term suggests she was a woman of means who provided material support for the church and possibly offered legal protection to Paul and others.

As the letter carrier, Phoebe likely would have been responsible not only for delivering the physical document to Rome but also for reading it aloud to the congregation and answering questions about its content, making her an authoritative interpreter of Paul's theology.

Priscilla (also called Prisca) and Aquila were a Jewish-Christian couple who became close associates of Paul. They first met Paul in Corinth after being expelled from Rome by Emperor Claudius's edict against Jews (Acts 18:2). As fellow tentmakers, they shared both a profession and ministry with Paul.

In Romans 16:3-5, Paul describes them as his "fellow workers in Christ Jesus" who "risked their own necks" for his life. This likely refers to some dangerous situation where they protected Paul at personal risk, possibly during the riot in Ephesus (Acts 19).

The couple hosted a house church in their home, which was common in early Christianity before dedicated buildings existed. Notably, Priscilla's name often appears before her husband's (including in Romans 16:3), unusual in ancient texts and possibly indicating her prominence in ministry. Together, they also instructed Apollos in "the way of God more accurately" (Acts 18:26).

Isaac was the promised son born to Abraham and Sarah in their old age, a miraculous fulfillment of God's covenant promise. As the child of promise rather than just biological descent, Isaac represents a key element in Paul's argument about the true children of Abraham.

In Romans 9:7-10, Paul uses Isaac to demonstrate that God's election operates not through natural birth but through divine promise. The statement "Through Isaac shall your offspring be named" (Romans 9:7, quoting Genesis 21:12) establishes that Abraham's spiritual lineage runs through the son of promise (Isaac) rather than the son of flesh (Ishmael).

Paul develops this theme further by noting that even Isaac's children (Jacob and Esau) were subject to God's sovereign choice, showing that mere descent from Isaac was insufficient to guarantee inclusion in God's covenant. This argument supports Paul's broader claim that not all ethnic Israel constitutes true spiritual Israel.

Rebecca was the wife of Isaac and mother of the twins Jacob and Esau. In Romans, Paul uses her pregnancy as a powerful illustration of God's sovereign election that operates independently of human merit or works.

In Romans 9:10-13, Paul emphasizes that God's choice between Jacob and Esau was made before they were born or had done anything good or bad. This timing is crucial to Paul's argument, as it demonstrates that divine election precedes human action and is based on God's purpose rather than human works.

Though Rebecca is mentioned only briefly, her role is significant in Paul's theology. The divine oracle given to her during her difficult pregnancy—"the older will serve the younger" (Genesis 25:23)—becomes evidence for Paul that God's redemptive purposes operate according to His sovereign choice rather than human lineage, merit, or achievement.

Isaiah was one of the most significant prophets of the Old Testament, active in Judah during the 8th century BC. Though not appearing as a character in Romans, Isaiah's writings are quoted extensively by Paul to support his theological arguments about Israel, righteousness by faith, and Gentile inclusion.

Paul cites Isaiah more than any other prophet in Romans, drawing particularly from passages about remnant theology (Isaiah 10:22-23), the stumbling stone (Isaiah 8:14; 28:16), Gentile inclusion (Isaiah 65:1), and God's future redemption of Israel (Isaiah 59:20-21).

Isaiah's prophetic vision of both judgment and restoration provides crucial scriptural support for Paul's complex argument about Israel's current unbelief and future salvation. By repeatedly introducing quotations with phrases like "Isaiah cries out" or "Isaiah says," Paul treats the prophet as an authoritative voice testifying to God's redemptive plan unfolding in the gospel.

Hosea was an 8th century BC prophet to the northern kingdom of Israel whose personal life became a living metaphor for God's relationship with unfaithful Israel. God commanded him to marry a promiscuous woman (Gomer) and to continue loving her despite her infidelity, paralleling God's faithful love for wayward Israel.

In Romans 9:25-26, Paul quotes from Hosea 2:23 and 1:10 to support his argument about God's sovereignty in calling people who were not previously His people. Though Hosea's prophecies originally referred to the restoration of ethnic Israel, Paul applies them to the inclusion of Gentiles in God's covenant.

This reinterpretation demonstrates Paul's conviction that the principles of God's redemptive work transcend their original historical context. Hosea's imagery of rejection and restoration provides Paul with biblical precedent for the surprising divine action of welcoming Gentiles into covenant relationship.

Epaenetus is mentioned only once in the New Testament, in Romans 16:5, where Paul describes him as "my beloved" and "the first convert to Christ in Asia." This designation marks him as a person of special significance in Paul's ministry and in the early spread of Christianity in the Roman province of Asia (western Turkey).

As the firstfruits of Paul's evangelistic work in Asia, Epaenetus likely came to faith during Paul's ministry in Ephesus (Acts 19), which lasted about three years and had a profound impact throughout the province. Being identified as the first convert suggests Epaenetus may have played a pioneering role in the establishment of the church in that region.

The fact that Epaenetus was in Rome when Paul wrote his letter indicates the mobility of early Christians and the connections between different churches throughout the empire. His presence in Rome, along with other companions of Paul, may have facilitated the apostle's introduction to the Roman church before his planned visit.

This Mary (distinct from other Marys in the New Testament) is mentioned only in Romans 16:6, where Paul acknowledges that she "has worked hard for you." The Greek verb used (kopiaō) denotes exhausting labor and is often used by Paul to describe ministerial work.

While we know little about this Mary's specific role or background, Paul's recognition of her efforts indicates she was a significant contributor to the Roman Christian community. Her name suggests she was likely of Jewish origin, as "Mary" (Miriam) was common among Jewish women.

Paul's acknowledgment of Mary's service demonstrates the important role women played in the early church and his appreciation for co-workers regardless of gender. That he specifically notes she worked hard "for you" (the Romans) suggests she had a longstanding relationship with the Roman church, possibly as a founder or leader.

Andronicus and Junia/Junias were a notable pair mentioned in Romans 16:7, described by Paul as "my kinsmen and my fellow prisoners" who were "well known to the apostles" and "in Christ before me." This rich description reveals several important aspects of their identity and ministry.

The phrase "my kinsmen" indicates they were likely Jewish Christians. As "fellow prisoners," they had shared in Paul's experience of imprisonment for the gospel at some point. Their conversion before Paul's suggests they were among the earliest Jewish believers, possibly converted during Jesus' ministry or soon after Pentecost.

Most significant is the description of them as "outstanding among the apostles." This phrase has been variously interpreted as either meaning they were highly regarded by the apostles or were themselves distinguished apostles. The latter interpretation, if correct, would make Junia (if female, as most scholars now believe) the only woman explicitly called an apostle in the New Testament, highlighting the leadership roles women held in the early church.

Timothy was one of Paul's closest associates and most trusted co-workers. The son of a Jewish mother and Greek father (Acts 16:1), he joined Paul during his second missionary journey and became a key figure in Paul's ministry team, often serving as his representative to churches.

In Romans 16:21, Paul includes greetings from Timothy, identifying him as "my fellow worker." This indicates Timothy was with Paul in Corinth when he wrote Romans. The fact that Timothy's greeting is placed first among Paul's companions suggests his prominent position in Paul's ministry circle.

Based on other New Testament writings, we know that Paul entrusted Timothy with significant responsibilities, including overseeing the church in Ephesus. Paul also wrote two letters to him (1 and 2 Timothy) with instructions for church leadership. Timothy's inclusion in the greeting section of Romans reflects the collaborative nature of Paul's ministry and the network of relationships that supported his work.

Romans 16 contains an extensive list of people whom Paul greets or mentions, providing a rare glimpse into the diverse composition of the early Roman church. These individuals include:

Ampliatus (16:8): Described as "my beloved in the Lord," a common Latin slave name suggesting humble social origins.

Urbanus (16:9): Called "our fellow worker in Christ," his name means "of the city" or "refined."

Stachys (16:9): Identified as "my beloved," a Greek name meaning "ear of corn."

Apelles (16:10): Described as "approved in Christ," suggesting he had endured testing of his faith.

Households of Aristobulus and Narcissus (16:10-11): Likely referring to Christian slaves or freedmen in these prominent Roman households.

Tryphena and Tryphosa (16:12): Two women whose names mean "dainty" and "delicate," ironically described as "workers in the Lord."

Persis (16:12): A woman who "has worked hard in the Lord," her name indicating Persian origin.

Rufus and his mother (16:13): Rufus is called "chosen in the Lord" and his mother had also mothered Paul in some way.

These greetings reveal a church that crossed gender, ethnic, and social boundaries, including both Jews and Gentiles, slaves and free, men and women, all united in Christ.

The Pharaoh of the Exodus (likely Ramesses II, though debated) appears in Romans as an example of God's sovereignty in hardening hearts. Paul references him in his discussion of divine election in Romans 9, quoting Exodus 9:16: "For this very purpose I have raised you up, that I might show my power in you."

In the Exodus narrative, Pharaoh repeatedly hardened his heart against God's commands through Moses, resulting in the ten plagues and eventually the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. The text alternates between saying Pharaoh hardened his own heart and that God hardened it.

Paul uses Pharaoh's case to illustrate that God has mercy on whom He wills and hardens whom He wills (Romans 9:18). This is part of Paul's larger argument about God's freedom in election and his response to the question of why some Jews rejected Christ while many Gentiles believed.

Tertius was the scribe who physically wrote the Epistle to the Romans as Paul dictated it. His brief personal greeting in Romans 16:22 provides a rare glimpse into the actual composition process of a Pauline letter.

As an amanuensis (professional scribe), Tertius may have had some freedom in shaping the exact wording of the letter while faithfully representing Paul's thoughts. The practice of using scribes was common in the ancient world, especially for longer documents.

The fact that Tertius inserts his own greeting suggests he was a Christian brother known to or connected with the Roman church in some way. His Latin name might indicate he was a Roman citizen or had connections to Italy, possibly helping Paul tailor his theological presentation to a Roman audience.

Elijah was a powerful 9th-century BC prophet in the northern kingdom of Israel who confronted King Ahab and the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel. He appears in Romans 11 as an example of God's preservation of a faithful remnant during times of widespread apostasy.

Paul quotes from 1 Kings 19, where Elijah, fleeing from Queen Jezebel, laments to God that he alone remains faithful while all Israel has abandoned the covenant. God corrects him, revealing that He has preserved 7,000 people who have not bowed to Baal.

Paul applies this historical example to his contemporary situation, arguing that even though many Jews rejected Jesus as Messiah, God has preserved a "remnant chosen by grace" (Romans 11:5) who believe. This serves his larger argument that God has not rejected His people Israel despite their present unbelief.

Sarah was Abraham's wife and the mother of Isaac, the child of promise. Though she is not mentioned by name in Romans, she is clearly referenced in Romans 4:19 and 9:9 in discussions about Abraham's faith and God's promise.

In Romans 4, Paul highlights Abraham's faith in God's promise of a son despite Sarah's barrenness and their advanced age. This serves as a powerful example of faith that "gives life to the dead and calls things that are not as though they were" (Romans 4:17).

In Romans 9, Paul quotes the promise to Abraham regarding Sarah's son to demonstrate that physical descent alone does not make one a true child of Abraham. Rather, it is the children of promise who are counted as Abraham's offspring, establishing a principle of divine election that transcends natural lineage.

Jacob and Esau were the twin sons of Isaac and Rebekah, grandsons of Abraham. Though twins, they became rivals even before birth, with Jacob eventually obtaining both the birthright and blessing intended for Esau, the firstborn. Jacob, later renamed Israel, became the father of the twelve tribes of Israel.

In Romans 9:10-13, Paul uses these brothers as an example of God's sovereign election that operates independently of human works or merit. Before they were born or had done anything good or bad, God declared, "The older will serve the younger" and "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated."

This example supports Paul's argument that God's choice of individuals for salvation is based on His sovereign will rather than human actions or ethnic heritage. The case of Jacob and Esau demonstrates that not all physical descendants of Abraham are included in the covenant promises in the same way.